理解Python中的类与实例
面向对象最重要的概念就是类（Class）和实例（Instance），必须牢记类是抽象的模板，比如Student类，而实例是根据类创建出来的一个个具体的“对象”，每个对象都拥有相同的方法，但各自的数据可能不同。
仍以Student类为例，在Python中，定义类是通过class关键字：
class Student(object): pass
class后面紧接着是类名，即Student，类名通常是大写开头的单词，紧接着是(object)，表示该类是从哪个类继承下来的，继承的概念我们后面再讲，通常，如果没有合适的继承类，就使用object类，这是所有类最终都会继承的类。
定义好了Student类，就可以根据Student类创建出Student的实例，创建实例是通过类名+()实现的：
>>> bart = Student() >>> bart <__main__.Student object at 0x10a67a590> >>> Student <class '__main__.Student'>
可以看到，变量bart指向的就是一个Student的object，后面的0x10a67a590是内存地址，每个object的地址都不一样，而Student本身则是一个类。
可以自由地给一个实例变量绑定属性，比如，给实例bart绑定一个name属性：
>>> bart.name = 'Bart Simpson' >>> bart.name 'Bart Simpson'
由于类可以起到模板的作用，因此，可以在创建实例的时候，把一些我们认为必须绑定的属性强制填写进去。通过定义一个特殊的__init__方法，在创建实例的时候，就把name，score等属性绑上去：
class Student(object):
def __init__(self, name, score):
self.name = name
self.score = score
注意到__init__方法的第一个参数永远是self，表示创建的实例本身，因此，在__init__方法内部，就可以把各种属性绑定到self，因为self就指向创建的实例本身。
有了__init__方法，在创建实例的时候，就不能传入空的参数了，必须传入与__init__方法匹配的参数，但self不需要传，Python解释器自己会把实例变量传进去：
>>> bart = Student('Bart Simpson', 59)
>>> bart.name
'Bart Simpson'
>>> bart.score
59
和普通的函数相比，在类中定义的函数只有一点不同，就是第一个参数永远是实例变量self，并且，调用时，不用传递该参数。除此之外，类的方法和普通函数没有什么区别，所以，你仍然可以用默认参数、可变参数和关键字参数。
数据封装
面向对象编程的一个重要特点就是数据封装。在上面的Student类中，每个实例就拥有各自的name和score这些数据。我们可以通过函数来访问这些数据，比如打印一个学生的成绩：
>>> def print_score(std): ... print '%s: %s' % (std.name, std.score) ... >>> print_score(bart) Bart Simpson: 59
但是，既然Student实例本身就拥有这些数据，要访问这些数据，就没有必要从外面的函数去访问，可以直接在Student类的内部定义访问数据的函数，这样，就把“数据”给封装起来了。这些封装数据的函数是和Student类本身是关联起来的，我们称之为类的方法：
class Student(object):
def __init__(self, name, score):
self.name = name
self.score = score
def print_score(self):
print '%s: %s' % (self.name, self.score)
要定义一个方法，除了第一个参数是self外，其他和普通函数一样。要调用一个方法，只需要在实例变量上直接调用，除了self不用传递，其他参数正常传入：
>>> bart.print_score() Bart Simpson: 59
这样一来，我们从外部看Student类，就只需要知道，创建实例需要给出name和score，而如何打印，都是在Student类的内部定义的，这些数据和逻辑被“封装”起来了，调用很容易，但却不用知道内部实现的细节。
封装的另一个好处是可以给Student类增加新的方法，比如get_grade：
class Student(object):
...
def get_grade(self):
if self.score >= 90:
return 'A'
elif self.score >= 60:
return 'B'
else:
return 'C'
同样的，get_grade方法可以直接在实例变量上调用，不需要知道内部实现细节：
>>> bart.get_grade() 'C'
小结
类是创建实例的模板，而实例则是一个一个具体的对象，各个实例拥有的数据都互相独立，互不影响；
方法就是与实例绑定的函数，和普通函数不同，方法可以直接访问实例的数据；
通过在实例上调用方法，我们就直接操作了对象内部的数据，但无需知道方法内部的实现细节。
和静态语言不同，Python允许对实例变量绑定任何数据，也就是说，对于两个实例变量，虽然它们都是同一个类的不同实例，但拥有的变量名称都可能不同：
>>> bart = Student('Bart Simpson', 59)
>>> lisa = Student('Lisa Simpson', 87)
>>> bart.age = 8
>>> bart.age
8
>>> lisa.age
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
AttributeError: 'Student' object has no attribute 'age'
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